The start of Cyrus the Great’s reign is primarily associated with two distinct contexts: his rule over Persia (as king of Anshan or Persia) and his conquest of Babylon, which marked his dominance over the Babylonian Empire. The most widely accepted years, based on ancient sources, are 559 BC for his reign over Persia and 539 BC for his rule over Babylon.
Details
Primary person: Cyrus
*EXTRA-BIBLICAL SOURCES:
- The Nabonidus Chronicle, a Babylonian cuneiform document, explicitly records the fall of Babylon to Cyrus in the 17th year of Nabonidus’ reign, which corresponds to 539 BC. It describes Cyrus’ army entering Babylon without a battle in the month of Tishri (October) 539 BC, after defeating Babylonian forces at Opis. This is the most precise and authoritative source for dating Cyrus’ conquest to 539 BC.
- The Cyrus Cylinder, a propagandistic cuneiform document, details Cyrus’ capture of Babylon and his claim to legitimate rule. While it does not provide an exact year, it describes his peaceful entry into Babylon and restoration of temples, aligning with the Nabonidus Chronicle’s account of 539 BC.
- Cuneiform economic and administrative tablets from Babylon show a transition in dating formulas from Nabonidus’ reign to Cyrus’ reign in 539 BC. Tablets dated to Nabonidus cease in October 539 BC, and those dated to “Year 1 of Cyrus, King of Babylon” begin shortly after, confirming the conquest and start of his reign in 539 BC. These records provide precise chronological evidence.
- The Canon of Ptolemy, a chronological list of kings used for astronomical calculations, records Cyrus as ruler of Babylon starting in 538/539 BC (following Nabonidus’ 17-year reign). While compiled later, it relies on earlier Babylonian records and aligns with the Nabonidus Chronicle, placing Cyrus’ accession over Babylon in 539 BC.
- In his Histories (Book 1.178–191), Herodotus describes Cyrus’ conquest of Babylon, including diverting the Euphrates River to enter the city. While he does not provide a specific year, his narrative aligns with the Babylonian timeline of 539 BC, as it follows Cyrus’ earlier conquests (e.g., Lydia in 546 BC) and precedes later Persian campaigns. His account supports the general chronology established by Babylonian sources.
- Xenophon’s Cyropaedia (Book 7) recounts Cyrus’ capture of Babylon, describing a nighttime assault during a festival. Like Herodotus, Xenophon does not specify a year, but his narrative is consistent with the 539 BC conquest described in Babylonian records, reinforcing the timeline.
- Berossus, as cited by later authors like Josephus (Against Apion 1.20), describes Cyrus’ conquest of Babylon after defeating Nabonidus. He does not explicitly state 539 BC, but his account of Cyrus’ victory and rule over Babylon aligns with the Nabonidus Chronicle’s timeline, supporting the start of Cyrus’ reign in 539 BC.
[Shulman date p143]
[Ussher date p116]